Massage Therapy Journal Summer 2025

Summer 2025 • 39

thousands of individual surveys from countries across the globe. Index scores are expressed on a scale from 0 to 100 (0 = lowest, 100 = highest). This numeric scale allows for comparisons between cultures. These numbers represent national “preferences” to distinguish one nation from another (not individuals). National cultural dimensions based on Hofstede’s framework are: 6 • Power Distance • Uncertainty Avoidance versus Uncertainty Acceptance • Individualism versus Collectivism

power and that people understand their place in the system. A low PDI means that power is shared and widely dispersed and that society members are less likely to accept situations in which power is distributed unequally. PDIs tend to be higher for East European, Latin, Asian and African countries and lower for Germanic and English-speaking Western countries. PDI for the United States is 40 . NOTE: Statements in these tables refer to extremes. Actual situations may be found anywhere between the extremes, and the association of statements with a cultural dimension is always statistical, never an absolute . Dimension 2: Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Uncertainty Acceptance Uncertainty avoidance versus uncertainty acceptance is how a society deals with ambiguity. Another way to look at this is the amount of stress people feel about an unknown future. Uncertainty avoidant cultures try to minimize stress by having formalized behavior and strict rules of conduct and harsher punishments when rules are broken. Members of these cultures tend to be more anxious and uptight. Uncertainty acceptant cultures embrace the unknown, value differences in thoughts and ideas, and have fewer rules and lighter consequences when rules are broken. Members of these cultures tend to be more open and relaxed. Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) indicates a country’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. A low UAI indicates the country has less concern about ambiguity and uncertainty

• Masculinity versus Femininity • Long-term Orientation versus Short-term Orientation • Indulgence versus Restraint Dimension 1: Power Distance

Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of a culture accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. Power distance is related to the problem of human inequality, and is defined from below not above. Power and inequality are part of all cultures, but some cultures are more unequal than others. Societal hierarchy is seen in many cultural relationships, such as between parents and children, teachers and students, employers and employees, and therapists and their clients. NOTE: Power distance is a cultural dimension. Power differential is the perceived difference in power between two parties, such as a massage therapist and their client . A high power distance index (PDI) indicates that a society accepts an unequal distribution of

Low PDI

High PDI

Parents treat children as equals

Parents teach children obedience

Older people neither respected nor feared

Older people both respected and feared

Student-centered education

Teacher-centered education

Subordinates expect to be consulted

Subordinates expect to be told what to do Corruption frequent; scandals are covered up

Corruption rare; scandals end political careers

Religions stress equality of believers

Religions with a hierarchy of leaders

Power Distance

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