Massage Therapy Journal Summer 2025

Summer 2025 • 37

culture’s ideology, or they can have meaning within a culture. Examples include the ankh in ancient Egyptian culture symbolizing life and immortality; the Yin-Yang symbol of Chinese culture symbolizing the balance of opposites; the British/American peace symbol representing the N and the D semaphore letters for nuclear disarmament in the antiwar movement; and the Christian cross symbolizing the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Because culture is always a collective or group phenomenon, we can make good predictions of the likelihood that groups of people will behave in certain ways. Keep in mind that one person does not represent a whole culture and, conversely, a culture does not represent one person. But a group of people from one culture are more likely to behave in a way that is appropriate for their particular culture. And people from the same culture tend to behave in a similar way, especially when they are together in a group. Origins of National Culture Research: Organizational Culture Versus National Culture When studying culture, one of the first and major contributors we learn about is Hofstede. He was born in Haarlem (near Amsterdam) in 1928. He earned a master’s degree in mechanical engineering and a doctoral degree in social psychology. Hofstede joined a large multinational corporation, International Business Machines, or IBM, in 1965. He worked as a management trainer and manager of personnel research. 4 Quite by accident, Hofstede had access to a large survey database about values and related views of IBM employees who lived and worked in over 50 countries around the world. IBM had been taking surveys of its employees over a four-year period of time, and the database had more than 100,000 questionnaires. Hofstede wanted to dive into the data, but the pressures of his daily job at IBM made that impossible. Although his research was too academic for the company’s needs, IBM allowed Hofstede access to the database records, and he began a two-year sabbatical in 1971.

Values and beliefs

Rituals and behaviors

Heroes/role models and shared history

Cultural symbols

itself from another group.” Culture is always a shared or collective phenomenon, and is often referred to as an onion with several layers. 3 These layers, from inner to outer, are: • Values and belief s are at the core of culture and represent preferences for a certain state of affairs (such as preferring equality over hierarchy). Values and beliefs are our views of what in life is considered important, and they are among the first things children learn. For example, interactions with parents or teachers who demonstrate what is acceptable and what is not acceptable in terms of behavior help shape a person’s values and beliefs. • Rituals and behaviors are solo or collective activities and considered essential by the members of a culture. Examples include ways of greeting and paying respect to others or social and religious ceremonies. They can be work-related activities, such as meetings or conferences, as well as leisure activities that are done in spare time, such as exercise, taking a sauna or going to the pub. • Heroes/role models and shared history include real or fictional characters, as well as storytelling. Stories include the sharing of traditions, folklore and historical events, as well as oral and written narratives. These can be found in music, celebrations, worship services and holidays. Shared history can influence beliefs and values, and they can also lead to trends. • Cultural symbols are objects, words or actions that represent something else that has no natural relationship but is defined by a cultural relationship. Symbols can represent a

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