INFORM April 2025

inform April 2025 Volume 36 (4)

DAIRY PROTEINS MINUS COWS

ALSO INSIDE: New edible oil refining technologies Mild distillation Enzymatic pretreatment

April 2025 inform

10 FEATURES

Say cheese: Biotechnology and the quest for animal-free dairy Biotech companies are modifying soybean DNA to produce casein, an animal protein, with the goal of creating animal-free dairy alternatives. However, scaling production to be commercially viable remains a significant hurdle. Beyond commercialization, these producers face regulatory approvals, consumer acceptance, and competition with traditional dairy and plant-based alternatives.

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Revolutionizing edible oil refining with microfluidic networks Microfluidic networks inspired by biology have been adapted for industrial-scale separations, offering innovative solutions for efficient processing. Now, a company has integrated enzyme-coated microfilaments to enhance the separation process. Read about how these advancements were tested for edible oil degumming, demonstrating their potential for practical applications in the industry. Mild distillation for optimal oil quality This article describes studies on how best to use short path distillation (SPD) to achieve shelf stability and effective contaminant removal during edible oil processing. The author compares how well mild refining conditions and SPD remove contamination from pesticides and mineral oil hydrocarbons (MOH) with the ultimate conclusion that starting with high-quality raw materials ensures the best outcome. Enzymatic pretreatment process provides biodiesel feedstock flexibility Addressing high free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations is a crucial aspect of biodiesel production. In this article, read about an enzymatic process that enhances fuel yield and production flexibility by significantly lowering FFA concentration in biodiesel feedstock.

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CONTENTS

4 Index to Advertisers 8 AOCS Events

5 Editor’s Letter 6 Division Update

29 Regulatory Review 30 Extracts & Distillates

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ADVERTISING INSTRUCTIONS AND DEADLINES Closing dates are published on the AOCS website (www.aocs.org). Insertion orders received after closing will be subject to acceptance at advertisers’ risk. No cancellations accepted after closing date. Ad materials must be prepared per published print ad specifications (posted on www.aocs.org) and re ceived by the published material closing dates. Ma terials received after deadline or materials requir ing changes will be published at advertisers’ risk. Send insertion orders and materials to the email address below. NOTE: AOCS reserves the right to reject adver tising copy which in its opinion is unethical, mislead ing, unfair, or otherwise inappropriate or incompat ible with the character of INFORM . Advertisers and advertising agencies assume liability for all content (including text, representation, and illustrations) of advertisements printed and also assume responsi bility for any claims arising therefrom made against the publisher. AOCS Advertising: Travis Skodack, Director Membership Phone: 1-217-693-4897 Email: travis.skodack@aocs.org Formerly published as Chemists’ Section , Cotton Oil Press , 1917–1924; Journal of the Oil and Fat Indus tries , 1924–1931; Oil & Soap , 1932–1947; news por tion of JAOCS , 1948–1989. The American Oil Chem ists’ Society assumes no responsibility for statements or opinions of contributors. INFORM (ISSN: 1528-9303) is published 10 times per year in January, February, March, April, May, June, July/August, September, October, November/ December by AOCS Press, 3356 Big Pine Trail, Ste C&D, Champaign, IL 61822 USA. Phone: +1 217-359 2344. Periodicals Postage paid at Champaign, IL, and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send ad dress changes to INFORM , PO Box 7230, Champaign, IL 61826 Subscriptions to INFORM for members of the American Oil Chemists’ Society are included in the annual dues. An individual subscription to INFORM is $195. Outside the U.S., add $35 for surface mail, or add $125 for air mail. Institutional subscriptions to the Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society and INFORM combined are now being handled by Wiley. Price list information is available at http://olabout. wiley.com/WileyCDA/Section/id-406108.html. Claims for copies lost in the mail must be received within 30 days (90 days outside the U.S.) of the date of issue. Notice of change of address must be received two weeks before the date of issue. For subscription inquiries, please contact Julie May at AOCS, julie.may@aocs.org. AOCS membership information and applications can be obtained from: AOCS, PO Box 7230, Champaign, IL 61826 USA or membership@ aocs.org. NOTICE TO COPIERS: Authorization to photo copy items for internal or personal use, or the inter nal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by the American Oil Chemists’ Society for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (www.copyright.com) Transactional Report ing Service, provided that the base fee of $15.00 and a page charge of $0.50 per copy are paid directly to CCC, 21 Congress St., Salem, MA 01970 USA.

AOCS MISSION STATEMENT AOCS advances the science and technology of oils, fats, proteins, surfactants, and related materials, enriching the lives of people everywhere.

inform International News on Fats, Oils, and Related Materials ISSN: 1528-9303 IFRMEC 36 (4) Copyright © 2013 AOCS Press

EDITORIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Julian Barnes Etienne Guillocheau Jerry King

Gary List Thais L. T. da Silva Warren Schmidt Raj Shah

Ryan Stoklosa Ignacio Vieitez Bryan Yeh

AOCS OFFICERS PRESIDENT: Tony O’Lenick, SurfaTech, Lawrenceville, Georgia, USA VICE PRESIDENT: Gerard Baillely, Procter & Gamble, Mason, Ohio, USA TREASURER: Greg Hatfield, Bunge Limited, Oakville, Ontario, Canada SECRETARY: Fabiola Dionisi, Societe’ Des Produits Nestlé - Nestlé Research, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland PAST PRESIDENT: Grant Mitchell, Salas O’Brien, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER: Patrick Donnelly

AOCS STAFF EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: Rebecca Guenard MEMBERSHIP DIRECTOR: Travis Skodack

PAGE LAYOUT: Moon Design

The views expressed in contributed and reprinted articles are those of the expert authors and are not official positions of AOCS.

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS *CPM Crown. ......................................................................................................... C4 *Checkerspot. ........................................................................................................ 19 *Desmet USA, Inc................................................................................................... C2 *French Oil Mill Machinery Co............................................................................... 13 *Myande Group Co. Ltd........................................................................................... 1 *Oil-Dri Corporation of America . ........................................................................... C3 Pope Scientific, Inc. . ............................................................................................... 9 Surfactant Associates, Inc. ...................................................................................... 7 *Corporate member of AOCS who supports the Society through corporate membership dues.

EDITOR’S LETTER

inform April 2025, Vol. 36 (4) • 5

See you in Portland!

A lot has changed in the past few months, which makes us even more grateful to have a yearly occasion that brings us face-to face, the AOCS Annual Meeting & Expo (https://annualmeeting.aocs.org). As always, the event is full of ample education and networking opportunities, as well as a long list of informative technical sessions. We cannot wait to see you at the Portland, Oregon Convention Center from April 27-30. In the meantime, enjoy the stories in this processing themed issue that showcase how industries are adopting new technology to achieve better efficiency and quality. Our cover story, Say cheese: Biotechnology and the quest for animal-free dairy , examines the cutting-edge advance ments in plant-based dairy alternatives. Biotech firms have achieved a major milestone—engineering soybeans to produce casein, an animal-derived protein crucial for cheese’s texture and taste. While they report industrial scale production, the processing, Revolutionize edible oil refining with microfluidic net works highlights how microfluidic technology—originally devel oped for medical devices—is now enhancing edible oil purification. By incorporating enzymes onto microfilament surfaces, research ers have demonstrated a novel approach to degumming, promising more efficient refining processes. We also take a closer look at refining methods with Mild distillation for optimal oil quality . This feature investigates how gentle refining techniques can minimize contaminants while maintaining oil stability. Combining mild refining with short path distillation appears to offer the best of both worlds, but as we discover, even the most sophisticated methods require high-quality raw materials for optimal results. “Biotech firms have achieved a major milestone— engineering soybeans to produce casein.” road to widespread adoption remains filled with challenges. In the realm of industrial

Finally, we examine the challenges of biodiesel produc tion in Enzymatic pretreatment process provides biodiesel feed stock flexibility . Traditional biodiesel production is limited by the presence of free fatty acids in feedstocks, but an enzy matic pretreatment process is proving to be a game-changer. By significantly reducing free fatty acid content, this innovation enhances feedstock flexibility and biodiesel yield, potentially reshaping the industry’s approach to fuel production.

Yours in science,

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Processing Division Spotlight

The Processing Division advances knowledge and manage rial skills by providing a forum for technical information and networking opportunities, to promote and facilitate commu nication and cooperation between members, and to mentor, support, and recognize young professionals. For this month’s spotlight, INFORM interviews two stu dents who have been significantly engaged with the Processing Division’s activities, Gozde Gulseren and Jasmin Yang. Both students are also recipients of a Division Student Excellence Award in 2025. INFORM: What opportunities have you engaged in at AOCS? How have you benefited from your involvement? Gulseren: I have been involved with AOCS since 2022, and my journey has been both rewarding and enriching. I joined the Student Common Interest Group as part of the Leadership and Education Team, where I had the opportunity to orga nize a webinar on mycelium-based foods. I moderated two Career Paths Panel Discussions, connecting with a diverse group of professionals and students. I was honored to co-chair the AOCS Student Common Interest Group, while also serv ing the role of student liaison for the Processing Division. At the 2025 AOCS Annual Meeting, I will serve as a judge for the Processing Division poster session and moderate a techni cal session. In 2025, I was also thrilled to receive the Student Excellence Award from the Biotechnology Division. Throughout my PhD journey, being involved with AOCS has been one of the most beneficial decisions I made for my personal and professional growth. I have had the opportunity to build meaningful relationships with like-minded peers, work collaboratively on various initiatives, and gain new perspec tives from people with diverse ideas and backgrounds. AOCS has given me the chance to connect with experts in the food industry, further enhancing my knowledge and expanding my professional network. AOCS has always been a welcoming and supportive environment for me, regardless of where I am on my academic or career path. Yang: I have been involved in AOCS since my second year as a PhD student. I have attended three AOCS Annual Meetings so far (in Atlanta, Denver, and Montréal), and I am looking for ward to this year’s meeting in Portland! I am grateful to be STUDENTS GAIN EXPERIENCE AND RECOGNITION THROUGH DIVISIONS

Gozde Gulseren

the recipient of the 2023 Protein and Co-Products Student Travel Grant, as well as the 2025 Processing Student Division Student Excellence Award, which has allowed me to attend the meetings. I have really appreciated the diverse opportunities that AOCS has given me to develop my presentation skills and broaden my professional network. I have presented my research in the ePoster Pitch competition (2022), and in the student poster competitions (2023, 2024). At last year’s Annual Meeting, I also served as co-chair for the session “ The Role of Processing on the Nutritional, Functional, and Biological Properties of Macro and Micronutrients, ” and I was a judge for the Processing Division student poster competition. I enjoyed gaining leadership experience through inviting speakers and organizing a session, and I also loved talking to fellow students about their research projects.

YOUR AOCS COMMUNITY

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INFORM: What is the most exciting aspect of your research? Gulseren: The most exciting aspect of my research has been working with mycelium, a unique, promising source of sus tainable materials and nutrients. Exploring mycelium’s potential in food production has fueled my curiosity and aligns with my passion for creating solutions that can help address global food security and sustainability challenges. I am most excited to contribute to innovations that might have a positive impact on people’s lives. This research has also been crucial in preparing me for my academic career, providing me with opportunities to experience cutting-edge technology, collaborate with experts, and expand my knowledge in food engineering and biotechnology. Working on such a unique and impactful project has not only been academically rewarding but has also reinforced my commitment to advancing research that can make a real differ ence in the world. Yang: The most exciting aspect of my work is to see all the pieces of the puzzle fit together in collaborative work. For example, for our project on extracting oligosaccharides using subcritical water extraction, our lab focused on the process ing, but we collaborated with the Barile lab on food analyti cal chemistry and the Mills lab for food microbiology. These other UC Davis groups helped us understand how our process ing conditions affected the oligosaccharide species and the

Jasmin Yang

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potential bioactive properties of the extracts through probiotic growth studies. It is exciting to leverage the diverse expertise in our department on this project. INFORM: If you had a grant that allowed you to do any research, what would it be? Gulseren: If I had the opportunity to pursue research with the support of a grant, I would focus on two main areas. First, I am curious about fungi powder in food production, especially through precision fermentation using synthetic biology tools. This innovative approach has the potential to significantly advance sustainability in food processing. Secondly, we need to think about how to provide food for future space missions and long-term habitation on other plan ets. The future of food could involve cultivating unique sources like fungi, algae, and microbial systems that are well-suited for space environments. As a food engineer, my ultimate goal is to contribute to the development of healthy, accessible, and sustainable food systems on Earth and innovative solutions for feeding future generations in space. Yang: I would love to be able to see the application of my research in actual food products, and to eventually produce food-grade samples for human sensory trials. While I do find AOCS EVENTS WATCH? April 27-30, 2025. AOCS Annual Meeting & Expo, Oregon Convention Center, Portland, Oregon. Visit annualmeeting.aocs.org for more information. April 28-30, 2025. AOCS Fabric & Home Care Forum, Hyatt Regency, Portland, Oregon. Visit fabrichomecare.aocs.org for more information. MEMBER EXCLUSIVE EVENTS Masterclass August 27, 2025, 10 a.m. CDT (Chicago, USA; UTC-05) Lipid oxidation studies with Charlotte Jacobsen, more April 2, 2025, 10 a.m. CDT (Chicago, USA; UTC-05) Lipidomics Predictive Modeling using the R Statistical Language Caret Package Brian Piccolo, Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, USA June 25, 2025, 10 a.m. CDT (Chicago, USA; UTC-05) Bringing antioxidants back to life to extend the shelf-life of lipid containing food products Ipek Bayram, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey Check for updates in upcoming issues of INFORM , at aocs.org, or contact us at general@aocs.org. information to come. INFORM seminar

it fascinating and important to understand how extraction methods impact protein structure and functionality in model systems, I am curious how the functional properties we mea sure in the lab translate to the behavior of food ingredients in a complex food matrix. INFORM: What mentor or advisor has made a major impact on your career so far? Gulseren: I am fortunate to have had many mentors and advisors who have played a significant role in my pro fessional journey. These mentors have shown me the importance of being patient, open-minded, and willing to challenge the status quo while still respecting individ ual perspectives. They fostered a sense of independence, allowing me to make my own decisions and providing valu able insights when needed. This balance of support and freedom had a lasting impact on my growth and continues to influence how I approach my own career. Yang: The person who has impacted my career the most is my major advisor, Dr. Juliana Bell. She has helped shape me as a researcher (and a person) and I am grateful to be a part of her lab! I admire her creativity, her attitude towards research, and how much she personally cares for all her students. She encourages me to stretch myself, to keep learning new things, and to be resilient and persevere through unexpected obsta cles or challenges. INFORM: Do you have any advice for other students who would like to get more involved in AOCS or Division activities? Gulseren: Absolutely! My first piece of advice would be to join the Student Common Interest Group and the Divisions that interest them most. AOCS is a fantastic way to broaden your network and connect with people who share simi lar interests. Through these connections, you will not only stay up to date with the latest research and innovations but learn about cutting-edge technologies. Participate in competitions and group activities. These experiences can help you build confidence and improve your teamwork skills, while working alongside students from diverse academic backgrounds and different universities. Collaborating with others will also give you new perspectives and can be a valuable learning experience. These activities help you develop practical skills that will be useful in your future career. Yang: I would recommend reaching out to Division leadership to see if you could co-chair a session or be more involved with the Annual Meeting in some way. That has been a highlight of my experience with AOCS and has been a great way to connect with other students, professors, and industry professionals.

To join the Processing Division, contact Steph Adams, steph.adams@aocs.org.

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Say cheese:

Biotechnology

George Hale

and the quest for

animal-free dairy

The market for plant-based foods has grown in recent years, with people embracing diets lower in, or completely free of, animal products. Yet despite the development of convincing meatless burgers, one food has remained a hurdle: cheese. This challenge has driven the launch of several food technology companies who are looking for ways to make an animal-free cheese that is indis tinguishable from the traditional product. The key lies in producing casein, a milk protein that gives cheese many of its desirable qualities, without involving animals.

A TIME-HONORED FOOD PROCESSING METHOD Cheese has been part of human diets since the earliest days of agriculture and is one the oldest foods that can be considered processed. Making cheese allowed people to preserve a perishable food source. However, plant-based cheeses make up only about one percent of the overall market, likely because food producers have been unable to make a cheese with the right texture and taste. Nut- and soy-based cheeses often disappoint consumers because they cannot stretch and melt like traditional cheese. Concerns over animal welfare and the sustainability of agriculture has been a major motivator for companies in the food biotech space. Alpine Bio founder and CEO, Magi Richani, started the company in 2016 after adopting a plant-based diet. Her training as an engineer led her to analyze dairy agriculture from a systems perspective and concluded that cows were not an efficient system. In 2023, on an episode of the tech podcast A16Z, Richani noted that it takes tons of resources to make just one gallon of milk. She felt she could use her engineering knowledge to make a better animal-free cheese.

• To achieve palatable plant-based cheese, biotech companies altered soybean DNA to grow casein, an animal protein. • Two companies announced last year that they have scaled their production processes to be commercially viable. • But commercial scale is just the first of many challenges facing animal-free protein producers.

PROCESSING

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Plant biotechnology company Mozza Foods CEO, Adam Tarshis, was similarly motivated. Tarshis started eating a plant based diet due to environmental and animal welfare concerns, but plant-based cheeses missed the mark. “The only thing I missed was cheese,” said Tarshis. STRUCTURES THAT STRETCH The stretch of cheese comes from casein. The proteins have a structure that no combination of plant proteins can dupli cate. Milk contains four types of casein: alpha-s1, alpha-s2, beta, and kappa caseins. Each casein fraction has differ ent weights and charges. Compared to other proteins they are unstructured with strands resembling something like a bowl of noodles. When heated, there is minimal structure to unfold. This helps give cheese its stretch when melted and the ability to return to its original state when cooled. In milk, the different types of casein combine to form micelles—small spheres, 100 to 150 nanometers in diameter. Casein accounts for approximately 80 percent of the protein in milk, most existing as micelles. The different types of casein in the micelles react differently to acids, salts, and enzymes, all of which influence the cheesemaking process. The only known natural source of casein is animal milk, but it is now possible to make individual casein proteins and micelles without involving animals. There are two major bio technology methods currently being used to make animal-free casein, either through microbes or plants. Although the meth ods are different, each uses recombinant DNA to code for the

Alpine Bio founder and CEO, Magi Richani, applied her engineering expertise to produce soybean grown, casein proteins at industrial scale.

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specific desired proteins and those strands are then inserted into other organisms. Biotechnological breakthroughs like precision fermenta tion and molecular farming now make it possible to produce animal proteins without any animal involvement. TINY AND PRECISE Much like cheesemaking, fermentation has been part of human food systems for centuries. However, unlike conven tional fermentation that produces lactic acid or alcohol, preci sion fermentation makes it possible to manufacture proteins and oils on a large scale. In precision fermentation, genetically modified microbes containing the instructions for making casein are grown in large fermentation chambers. As the microbes feed on sug ars in the tanks, they produce casein much like conventional yeast produce alcohol. Once fermentation is complete, pro ducers separate the proteins from the microbes, sugars, and other substances then purify them for use as an ingredient in dairy products. Multiple companies are at different stages of making commercially viable amounts of casein and other ingredients using precision fermentation. GREENER PASTURES The other method using genetic modification, molecular farm ing, produces animal proteins like casein in plants. Companies using molecular farming note the economic challenge of scal ing precision fermentation production to a commercial level. Alpine Bio estimates that meeting the demand for cheese could take billions of liters of fermentation capacity, which

means additional costs associated with building and operating more fermenting chambers. Growing casein in plants could be more cost effective. Plants are relatively inexpensive to grow and scaling up pro duction does not mean building new equipment, just planting more crops. However, the tradeoff is the biological challenge of getting plants to produce an animal protein. “It is relatively easy to get a yeast to produce a protein,” said Tarshis. “The biology of plants is more complicated.” To be viable, the crop must be inexpensive to grow and have a high protein content. Soybeans have an average protein content of 35 percent by weight. Additionally, soy is a com modity crop, so it is grown nearly everywhere. Hence, both Alpine Bio and Mozza Foods have spent the past several years at work in laboratories and greenhouses to make soybeans that are stable and can produce casein in sufficient amounts. “The trick is getting the soybean to do what we want,” said Tarshis. Recently Alpine Bio made headlines when the company announced it had completed a large-scale harvest of casein-pro ducing soybeans on a farm in Nebraska. Using a collaborative model, Alpine Bio works directly with farmers to grow their soy beans using sustainable farming techniques. Although the com pany did not disclose how many acres their crop covered, it was the largest harvest the company has had by far. Mozza Foods has also made notable progress in their quest for plant-based casein. The company has been working with experts from United States Department of Agriculture and have successfully grown their patented soybeans on a one-quarter acre test plot. Tarshis said the company plans to

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plant one to ten acres of soybeans in 2025 and scale upward to 100 to 1000 acres by 2027. PROCESSING PROTEIN Another advantage of using soybeans is that companies can lever age existing processing infrastructure. Since soy is one of the big gest crops in the world, there is a lot of processing infrastructure available. Producing casein is only the first step. Once harvested, producers will need to get casein out of the soybeans. Soybeans go through a multistep process after harvest to separate oil and water from soybean solids. The solids are often used to produce animal feed, but they can also be used to make soy protein food products and other substances. Both companies rely on conventional soybean processing infrastructure to isolate casein proteins from the refined soy beans. However, Mozza Foods uses plants engineered to make complete casein micelles inside the soybeans themselves. In contrast, Alpine Bio is focused on creating different casein pro teins combinations. The difference in their biological approaches leads to dif ferences in how each company isolates their proteins. Casein and soy are similarly sized; however, micelles are larger, mak ing it possible to use standard dairy filtering methods to sepa rate the casein micelles from soy protein. Alpine Bio uses their own proprietary method for separating casein. They note that their product may contain some soy protein. REMAINING OBSTACLES Alpine Bio plans to produce an animal-free mozzarella in 2025. The company previously planned to sell their products directly to the public, but will instead pursue a business-to-business model. Mozza Foods also plans to make proteins to supply to food producers. “Our goal is not to compete with companies like Kraft for shelf space,” said Tarshis. Regardless of their model, all companies in this space will face obstacles beyond the technical and business ques A microscope image of the cross-section of a soybean containing casein inside micelles. Source: Moza Foods

tions. First, they must clear regulatory hurdles before selling products meant for human consumption. Regulations differ between countries, with the US using a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) approach. Mozza Foods is not at that point yet, but Tarshis said that as long as the resulting protein is sufficiently similar to something already in use they should get approval. Richani noted that although there are possible allergen con cerns regarding soy protein in Alpine Bio’s casein product, there are plenty of products that use both soy and milk pro teins together. Another regulatory issue is describing and labeling cheese made with plant-based casein. Should a cheese that uses an animal protein produced without animals be called plant based or vegan; or should it be called animal-free? In a panel discussion at the 2021 Good Food Conference, Richani said that what we call things is as important as the technology we use to make them. Companies making products like animal-free cheese will need to show leadership in defining cheese, meat, and other products. They will also need to be clear that their products did not come from animals or whether they contain allergens. At the same time, companies will need to continue work ing to make their products price competitive with conventional cheeses. Richani said she her goal is to walk into any pizza place and walk out with a pizza made with animal-free cheese that costs the same and tastes as good. To improve sustainabil ity, she said, we must give people better options. George Hale is a freelance science and technology writer based in Pearland, Texas. He can be contacted at halegr@gmail.com.

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Revolutionizing

edible oil refining

with microfluidic networks Diana Gitig

Trees transport groundwater all the way up through their trunks and out to each of their leaves using a vast network of microscopic tubes. Our bodies disperse fluids through a similar kind of network of capillaries. These biological systems exploit the principles of microfluidics—the flow of liquids on a microscale, through small channels, to achieve the mass transfer of dissolved solutes. Transport phenomena at this scale moves materials in a way that does not occur in larger vessels. Engineered microfluidic systems have thus far been applied on a small scale. Inkjet printers have used similar techniques for fine fluid deposition for years. They are used in groundbreaking medical devices like organs-on-a-chip, cell sorters, and drug delivery systems that sup plant IVs. They are small enough and fast enough to be used out in the field for diagnostic and environmental assays. A company near Austin, Texas hopes to improve industrial process ing by amplifying tiny, microfluidic systems to operate on a large scale. Visionary Fiber Technologies (VFT) took the concept of fluids flowing through channels etched on a surface and reimaged it to be suitable for multi-ton reactors (https://visionaryfiber.com). To accommodate the gal lons of liquid that these applications require, VFT bundled thousands of monofilaments, 50 to 100 micron diameter wires, together and applied them in the unit operations of an oilseed processing plant. HOW IT WORKS The developers chose fibers with different textures or made of different materials, like polymers or carbon, based on their desired surface prop erties, an affinity for water, for example. Water wants to adhere to these wires. If the wires are intentionally kept at a specific distance from each other, they form a channel that an aqueous layer can then flow through. When these individual microfluidic channels are layered into stacks, they

• The unique mass transfer ability of microfluidic networks has led to multiple medical device applications. • One company used the idea to develop technology to carry out separations at industrial scale. • Now they have taken the concept a step further by adding enzymes to microfilament surfaces. • Testing proved the simple system can be used for edible oil degumming.

PROCESSING

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create massive fiber reactor arrays containing a multitude of microchannels that can accommodate gallons of liquid flowing through per minute. This fiber reactor technology allows mass transfer to pro ceed between micrometer thin ribbons of immiscible fluids without active churning and turbulence that forms emul sions, substantially increasing throughput while reducing both upfront and variable operating costs, as well as cleanup time. As the oil and aqueous phase flows through the channels and down the wires, contaminants dissolve into the water and clean oil is easily separated by centrifugation. The fiber reactor technology that VFT employs provides up to 60 times the avail able surface area used to mix immiscible liquids than other industrial two-phase column mixers, like static columns with packed media and agitated columns. ORIGINS OF AN IDEA According to Scott Kohl, VFT’s Chief Technology Officer, this technology was pioneered by Merichem Technologies, in Houston, TX, in the 1950s (https://www.merichem.com). They used it to remove mercaptans from crude oil. They had flow ing a NaOH solution adhered to the wires, and as the crude oil went through, the mercaptans within it would become ionized and dissolve into the NaOH solution.

John Massingill, at Texas State University, in San Marcos, TX, subsequently expanded and commercialized the concept of fiber reactors for other applications. VFT bought Massingill’s patents and continued expanding on his work. The company has used their arrays primarily to purify crude soybean and corn oils in preparation for making biodiesel fuel. Recently they began refining edible oils with them, including palm, corn, and cottonseed oils. Left, microfibers being used to separate lipid (yellow) and aqueous (blue) phases. Right, commercial scale microfluidic array. Source: VFT.

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STANDARD PRETREATMENT PROCESS

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of complexity. Yield losses accumulate with each

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Disposal of spent sorbents as a waste product is an

A comparison between the major unit operations for a standard versus microfluidic array pretreatment of vegetable and animal lipids for renewable biodiesel applications. Source: VFT.

Producing a product for human consumption requires a higher quality standard than biodiesel applications. As a result, VFT has had to address several technical challenges associated

the phospholipid species, notably phosphatidic acid and its cal cium salt, hydrate too slowly to come out of the oil otherwise. The process uses phospholipase A (PLA 1 and PLA 2 ) and phospholipase C (PLC). PLA 1 and PLA 2 catalyze the hydrolysis of an ester bond which releases a free fatty acid moiety and cre ates a lysophospholipid. PLC liberates a diacylglycerol (DAG) and the phosphate head group; this creation of DAGs also serves to increase the oil yield. Both cleavages polarize the phospholipid molecules that then dissolve into the aqueous phase. After just one pass through the reactor, Wood’s technique reduced the phosphorus content of crude soybean oil to less than 10 parts per million, from approximately 600. In VFT’s test ing they were able to refine 535 gallons of oil over the course of a month; each drop of oil takes about three and a half minutes to pass through the column. They can currently run about half a gallon through the reactor a minute, which translates to about seven hundred gallons in twenty-four hours. Their ultimate goal is to be able to process over a hundred gallons per minute. Next, VFT intends to start using other classes of lipases to make cocoa butter and breast milk replacements. The partic ular triglycerol composition of these fats makes them highly desirable, yet they are both difficult and expensive to attain. Lipases can be used to create these triglycerol profiles with cheaper, more abundant vegetable oils. Diana Gitig earned her PhD in cell biology and genetics from Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences in New York City. She writes about cell and molecular biology, immunology, neuroscience, and agriculture for arstechnica.com.

with contaminant removal. DISSOLVING GUMS

The sticky phospholipids (also known as gums or lecithins) present in all crude oils limit shelf life and impart off flavors. They make oils—those destined for fuel, but certainly those destined for cooking and eating—commercially undesirable and must be removed. Removing phosphorus is important for renewable fuels, as phosphorus damages catalyst beds. But they do not come out of soybean oil after a simple wash, the way they do for corn oil. Leslie Wood is a senior scientist at VFT with a back ground in surface modifications and nanoparticle synthesis for a variety of applications. Before she joined the company the fiber reactors had only been used for their microfluidic properties in and of themselves, she said. Wood put her skills to work making steel wires catalytic. She attached phospho lipase enzymes onto an array and tested it for soybean oil refining. To everyone’s surprise the system worked well on the first try. Kohl said of the simple design, it was “almost like a lead acid battery–it worked right out of the box without much tweaking.” The immobilized phospholipase breaks down phospho lipids in soybean oil as it passes through the wires, solubilizing them in the aqueous phase. This is necessary because some of

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20 • inform April 2025, Vol. 36 (4)

Twenty years ago, researchers at the University of Prague determined that heating edible oils above 225 o C for multiple hours during processing created toxins (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02652030600887628). Naturally occurring esters of 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD), predominantly from a mixture of palmitic acid diesters with C18 fatty acids, such as stearic, oleic, linoleic acid, formed bound 3-MCPD in the refined oils. The compounds are known carcinogens and the industry began studying ways to avoid or reduce their production during refining. Mild distillation for optimal oil quality Frank Möllering

The best approach is to avoid the steps that lead to the contaminant formation through optimal harvesting and rapid, optimised processing at the source. In this way, processors can achieve 3-MCPD levels less than 500 µg/kg. However, this strategy has the disadvantage of requiring food producers to be dependent on select suppliers. At Nutriswiss we have developed a way to ensure low 3-MCPD levels—particularly for infant formula applications—irrespective of the quality of the raw materials. Beyond 3-MCPD we are focused on limiting the presence of other esters with genotoxic potential. The presence of these esters is techno logically challenging in the typical refining of seed oils such as sunflower, soya or maize germ oil. In addition, contaminants such as pesticides from non-organic cultivation or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can also be found in conventional or even organic oils. To keep glycidol content as low as possible (under 50 µg/kg), processors can lower deodorization temperatures, but the downside is that then they cannot completely mitigate the presence of certain impurities. A reliable and sophisticated process to solve this problem is short path, or molecular, distillation (SPD). This processing step can be used to effi ciently remove, or significantly reduce, contaminant levels from fats and oils. However, it is important that the product quality remains stable or is improved compared with conventional processes. Nutriswiss has done extensive tests to determine the ideal process parameters to achieve this goal. At Nutriswiss AG, we used a continuous vacuum SPD process sup plied by VTA, an equipment manufacturer based in Niederwinkling, Germany. The distiller is designed for heat sensitive products using low vacuum and short residence times. The SPD works using a scraper, or wiper, inside a cylindrical evaporator that distributes the oil in a turbu lent, thin layer onto heated walls where distillation occurs. SHORT PATH DISTILLATION: A KEY COMPONENT OF PROCESS CONTROL

• Gentle refining can be performed while keeping process contamination (from pesticides, MOH, etc.) under control. • Mild refining alone only achieves low reduction rates but has a positive effect on oil stability. • Mild refining with short path distillation combines good stability with good contaminant reduction, while preventing any further process contamination. • However, the process is not a cure-all and high-quality raw materials are still needed for best results. Oils heavily contaminated with MOH remain poor.

PROCESSING

inform April 2025, Vol. 36 (4) • 21

An industrial SPD plant supplied by VTA Verfahrenstechnische Anlagen GmbH & Co. KG Source: Nutriswiss

compound

% reduction

Because the apparatus operates at a vacuum of up to 10 -3 mbar, volatile components such as pesticides and free fatty acids, as well as tocopherols, can evaporate more easily under low thermal stress. These compounds are subsequently reliq uefied and removed through a condenser located a few cen timetres away, in the center of the cylinder. Meanwhile, the cleaned oil flows down the evaporator wall. The evaporation rate is normally about a few per cent; the temperature and pressure determined by the oil being processed and the sub stances being removed. CUSTOMIZING THE REFINING STRATEGY Depending on the quality of the starting oil—be it palm, coco nut, or seed—Nutriswiss uses a combination of pretreatment, SPD, and mild deodorization. We select the process conditions for SPD in such a way that the natural beneficial ingredients of the oils, especially the tocopherols, are not reduced any more than with classical refining. We have performed internal studies on optimizing the refining process so that the tocopherols in the base oil are largely retained or even increased. The explanation for this increase is the cleavage of dimeric bonds between tocoph erol molecules, or ester bonds between tocopherols and other compounds. In addition, we found that with an appropriately pretreated seed oil and process parameters chosen to main tain a target tocopherol content comparable with physical refining, pesticides can be reduced by the following amounts:

anthraquinone

> 92 > 97 > 90 > 80 > 93

biphenyl

piperonyl butoxide pirimiphos-methyl

folpet

The process also reduces heavy PAHs by approximately 95 percent, while eliminating activated carbon dosing. For com parison, the figure at the top of page 22 shows a comparison of a standard processing and mild refining process with deodor ization temperatures less than 200 °C. For all the pesticides mentioned, the levels after SPD treatment were below the detection limit. THE MOAH ISSUE: LEGISLATION, SOURCING, ANALYSIS, AND PROCESS In 2022, an EU committee introduced limits for mineral oil aro matic hydrocarbons (MOAH). Owing to their chemical struc ture and lipophilic properties, MOAH accumulate and can be easily absorbed from machine lubricants exhaust gases, or tire abrasion. Tropical products such as coconut oil, palm oil or cocoa butter usually arrive in Europe by sea. By the time they arrive, the raw materials have already been pumped into tanks and ships several times. Open loading processes and contact